The Second Battle of Panipat and the Stray Arrow that Changed History

On November 5th, 1556 as the Samrat of Dilli, Hemu's armies faced the young challenger Akbar and his Mughal warriers across the plains of Panipat, it seemed as if the march of Indian history paused and watched with a bated breath. For today promised two future paths which would be very different from each other. On one side stood a potential resurgence of Hindu empire in India and on the other stood a permanent  establishment of Mughals. But to understand how this crossroad of Indian history came to be we need to look a little further back.

After the death of Sher Shah Suri in 1545, his son Islam Shah Suri was crowned emperor. Though he was a strong king, his untimely death in 1554 opened the doors for infighting and power struggle within the Sur dynasty. His successor, his son Firuz Shah Suri, who was aged only twelve was murdered by Sher Shah's nephew Muhammad Mubariz Khan, who then ascended the throne as Muhammad Adil Shah. He appointed Firuz Shah's competent wazir Hem Chandara (Hemu) as his own wazir. As Adil Shah whiled away his time in wine, opium, singing and dancing, it was left to Hemu to manage the affairs of the State.Sensing a weak ruler in Delhi, many of the Afgan governors refused to pay taxes. Ibrahim Shah Suri, the governor of Agra, revolted and overthrew Adil Shah from Delhi. At the same time Sikandar Shah Suri and Muhammad Khan Suri the governors of Punjab and Bengal respectively declared their independence. Adil Shah was left ruling small portions of land near Agra and Bihar. Leading Adil Shah's armies Hemu went from region to region crushing rebellions of various Afghan governors. In December 1555 Hemu routed the Bengal forces under Muhammad Shah, who was killed in the battle. Meanwhile, Humayun sensing opportunity to retake Delhi placed the command of his armies in the hands of Bairam Khan and marched from Kabul. Bairam Khan led Humayun's armies to victory against Sikandar Suri in Punjab and facing any further resistance, on 23 July 1555, Humayun once again sat on Babur's throne in Delhi.But the victory was short lived. Nine months later, as the thirteen year old Akbar and Bairam Khan were camped in Kalanor with the mughal armies chasing after Sikandar Suri, Humayun slipped down the steep stairs of his library and died of a fractured skull. As Stanley Lane Pool remarks " Humayun tumbled through life and tumbled out of it".

Hemu / Raja Vikramaditya

For the next seventeen days, as Akbar and Bairam Khan made preparations for return to Delhi, Humayun’s death was kept a secret from the empire. Mulla Bekasi , who resembled Humayun, was dressed up as the emperor every day and shown to the public (Jharokha Darshan) from the palace terrace. It was only on 11th February 1556, when the khutba was read in Akbar’s name from the Delhi mosques that the death of Humayun was made public. Meanwhile Akbar was formally crowned emperor on 14th February in Kalanor. He stood on a wooden platform and received oaths of fealty from his loyal amirs, generals and other nobles. Bairam Khan had expected initial threats to Akbar’s rule either from treachery from within Delhi or in the form of Sikandar Sur in the west. However, trouble came unexpectedly from the eastern part of the realm. Sensing opportunity to seize Delhi, Hemu marched with his army from Chunar and reached Delhi via Etawah, Kalpi and Agra. At Agra, the Mughal governor, Iskandar Khan Uzbeg offered some resistance but was soon overwhelmed. Hemu captured Agra with its huge trove of war equipments and treasure. On the heels of the retreating army, Hemu marched on to Delhi. Tadri Beg, the governor of Delhi sent messengers to Akbar in Kalanor and prepared for battle. Hemu and Tadri Khan’s armies met outside Delhi. Sir Jadunath Sarkar writes about the battle of Tughlaqabad as follows: “The Mughal army was thus drawn up. Abdullah Uzbeg commanded the van, Haider Muhammad the right wing, Iskander Beg the left and Tadri Beg himself the center. The van and the left wings attacked and drove the enemy forces before them and followed far in pursuit. In the assault the victors captured 400 elephants of Hemu’s and killed over 3000 of his Afghan warriors. Imagining victory already gained many of Tadri Beg’s followers dispersed to plunder the enemy camp and he was left in the field thinly guarded. All this time Hemu had been holding 300 of his choice elephants and a force of select horsemen as a reserve in the center. He promptly seized the opportunity and made charge upon Tadri Beg.” Tadri Beg panicked. Abandoning over 1000 iraqi horses, over 150 war elephants and an unprotected Delhi, Tadri Beg fled westwards to join with Akbar's advancing army. Hemu renamed Raja Vikramaditya, crowned himself king. He distibuted the captured treasures among his Afghan and Rajput nobles, had coins stuck in his name and held court from the imperial canopy. 

The Second Battle of Panipat

Then Hemu advanced from Delhi to meet with Akbar's forces. Remembering Babur's strategic use of his artillary to defeat Ibrahim Lodi in the first battle of Panipat, Hemu sent his park artillary including large field guns, cannon, rockets and moartars in advance escorted by a relatively weak vanguard towars Panipat. In the narrow passages of Panipat he planned to block the advance of Akbar and Bairam Khan's forces and force them to either turn back or attempt a suicidal frontal attack.Sensing the move, Bairam Khan sent a part of his force at neck breaking speed, which made a surprise attack on Hemu's artillary before his main army could arrive and captured almost all of Hemu's artillary. However, Hemu's army arrived before Bairam Khan and Akbar could catch up with the rest of their forces and started launching massive attacks on the Moghul vanguard army. Akbar's vanguard was barely able ot hold on till help arrived. The two main foces finally met on the battlefield on 5th November 1556. The strength of Hemu's army was predominantly in its elephants. Their huge stature and built combined with effective war training made them lethal killing machines. These elephants were furnished with chain mail and defensive armour and daggers and sabers were attached to their tusks. Despite their size, they were of the most amazing swiftness and agility. Musketeers and bowmen were seated on their back. Hemu's army had around 1500 of these war elephants and a fighting strength of around 50,000 cavalry. He put them under three commands - the right wing under Shadi Khan Kakar, the left under his sister's son Ramya while sitting on his famous elephant 'Hawai' he commanded the center. The Mughal army which was smaller in number with around 25,000 horsemen. The main cavalry of the Mughal army rode forward in a two pronged attack to relieve its vanguard. They were supported by the archers and muskeeters who followed. The central army was made up of the remaining cavalry of around 4000 men. The two pronged attack initially halted Hemu's advances but soon the battle tide turned. The two flanks were slowly driven inwards and Hemu's well desciplined elephants pushed forward despite many wounds. The Mughal army's flanks were driven back towards the center. Then Hemu attacked the central flank himself leading a charge of elephants and cavalry. The Mughals deployed a strategy of meeting the elephants with a shower of arrows in a hope of making them turn around and stampede. Though this was not successful, one of such stray arrows pierced Hemu's left eye and he collapsed unconcious. This decided the fate of the battle. Hemu's army, seeing him fall, scattered to save their lives and were chased and decimated by the Mughals. Hemu himself was captured and brought to Akbar and Bairam Khan. 

According to Abul-Fazl Hemu was beheaded  by Bairam Khan on the battlefield. His head was sent to Kabul and the trunk was hung at the gates of Delhi. There it was left to rot till only bones remained. Within a few hours the Mughal army regrouped around mounts of war spoils and a pyramid of over ten thousand severed heads of Hemu's warriors. This was an age old practice of the Mughal warriors, followed by Babur and going way back to Timur and Genghis Khan. 

With this victory Akbar firmly established himself as the Emperor of India and started an consolidation process which saw him become the richest and the most powerful emperor of the world in that period.

The Lion King of India - Sher shah Suri

Sher Shah Suri

The Indian history of the first half of the 16th century is the story of the Afgan-Mughal contest for dominance and power in the sub continent. In 1526 Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi, the Sultan of Delhi, in the first battle of Panipath marking the advent of Mughal empire in India. However the Afghan chieftains were not completely destroyed. Disarrayed and discontent to an alien rule they required the guidance and charisma of a strong leader. This they found in the form of Sher Shah Suri.

Sher Shah was born Farid in Haryana. At an early age his father Hasan took him to Sasaram in Bihar where he had been awarded a small jagir. In his childhood days Farid was ill treated by his step-mother and at the age of 22 left his household to travel and study in Jaunpur. After the death of his father Farid took possession of his paternal jagir and in 1522 got into the service of Bahar Khan, the ruler of Bihar. He rose quickly in the court of Bahar Khan and was soon appointed his deputy. He also became the tutor and mentor of Bahar Khan's minor son. Once, hunting in the forest, Farid killed a full grown tiger with his bare hands and was awarded the title of Sher Khan by Bahar Khan. But in a few years Sher Khan fell out of favour with Bahar Khan and joined Babur's camp in 1527-28. On the death of Bahar Khan, Sher returned to Bihar as its governor and guardian to the minor prince. After becoming the governor of Bihar, he began reorganizing the administration efficiently. In course of four years he organised a well disciplined, one of the largest and most efficient army and became the recognized ruler of Bihar. In the same time the Fort of Chunar came into his possession. The Lord of Chunar had been killed by his eldest son, who had rebelled against his father. His widow however married Sher Shah and gave the fort to him. 

Sher Shah's Empire

As Humayun focused his armies towards western India in order to defeat Bahadur Shah of Gujarat, Sher Khan in a surprise attack on Bengal annexed a large part of its territory. In 1530s as Humayun attacked and defeated Bahadur Shah of Gujarat, many of the defeated Afghan generals fled and joined Sher Shah as he was increasingly perceived as the new rising Afgan leader. Strengthened by his acquisitions in 1537 Sher Khan attacked Bengal and besieged its capital Gaur. Humayun on his return journey from Gujarat made his way towards east but instead of joining forces with the Sultan of Bengal, besieged the Fort of Chunar. There he was unable to conquer it for over six months while Sher Shah was able to utilize the time for capture of Gaur. Unable to capture Chunar, Humayun moved his forces towards Bengal and entered Gaur in July 1538. However, Sher Khan avoided direct confrontation with Humayun's forces and moved his forces to plunder Mughal territories in Bihar, Jaunpur and Kannauj. Finnaly the Mughal and Afghan armies met on the plains of Buxar in June 1539. Here the Mughar armies met with a heavy defeat and most of the Mughal soldiers were killed or captured by Sher Shah's army. Humayun himself escaped by hiding in the water skin of a water carrier and was carried across the Ganges. The victory over the Mughal ruler widened Sher Khan's empire which now extended from Kannauj in the west to the hills of Assam in the east. To legalize what he had gained, he now assumed the royal title of Sher Shah and ordered the Khutba to be read and the coins to be minted in his name. The next year Humayun retried to capture lost territories and met Sher Shah's armies in Kannauj. Commanding a demoralized and badly trained army, Humayun was again defeated on 17th May, 1540 in the Battle of Kannauj. The defeat marked the end of the empire created by Babur and heralded the arrival of Sur dynasty which ruled India unto 1557. 

Apart from being a great military leader, Sher Shah Suri, was an extremely able administrator. He introduced a tax collection system, built roads along with resting areas for travelers, dug wells, improved the jurisdiction, founded hospitals, established free kitchens, organized mail services and the police. His management proved so efficient that even one of the greatest rulers of human history, the Mughal Emperor Akbar, organized the Indian subcontinent on his measures, and the system which lasted until the 20th century. He is widely considered to have built the civil and administrative structures which were later used and developed further by Akbar. To Sher Shah Suri are attributed four key achievements:

1. Introduction of an Effective Monetary System: Sher Shah introduced the tri-metal coinage system which later came to characterize the Mughal coinage system. He also minted a coin of silver which was termed the Rupiya that weighed 178 grains and was the precursor of the modern rupee. The same name is still used for the national currency in Pakistan, India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Mauritius, Maldives, Seychelles among other countries.
2. Development of Roadways: For military and trade movement, Sher Shah connected the important places of his kingdom by a netwrok of excellent roads. The longest of these, called the Sadak-e-Azam or the "Badshahi Sadak" (renamed "Grand Trunk Road" by the British) survives til this day. This road is the longest highway of Asia and extends over 1500 Km from Sonargaon in Eastern Bengal to the Indus. All the roads were flanked by shade giving trees and there were sarayes (traveller's inns) all along the routes. 
3. Administrative Subdivision of Empire:  The Sur empire was divided into forty-seven separate units called sarkars. Each of these was further subdivided into. Each paragana had its own administrative system with its own Ami , lawkeeper, treasurer and account keepers. Over the next higher administrative unit, the sarkar, were placed a Shiqdar-I-Shiqdaran and a Munsif-I-Munsifan to supervise the work of the paragana officers. To keep a tab on the performance of his officers, Sher shah had panned to rotate them across the empire every two or three years. Every branch of the administration was subject to Sher Shah's personal supervision.
4. Development of the First Postal System: The sarayes developed along the road network also served as post offices. Sher Shah Suri established the foundations of a mounted post or horse courier system, wherein conveyance of letters was also extended to traders. This is the first known record of the Postal system of a kingdom being used for non-State purposes, i.e. for trade and business communication. 

Sher Shah Suri died from a gunpowder explosion during the siege of Kalinjar fort on May 22, 1545 fighting against the Chandel Rajputs. Had it not been for his untimely demise the Sur dynasty would not have declined and perished and the Mughal empire may never have been re-established. 

The Sher Shah Suri Tomb (122 ft high) stands in the middle of an artificial lake at Sasaram, a town that stands on the Grand Trunk Road, his lasting legacy.

Post Independence Integration - The Taking of Hyderabad

The Nizam of Hyderabad

One of the few princely states that resisted integration into the Indian Union was the State of Hyderabad. Theb state of Hyderabad had a Muslim ruler and a mostly Hindu population (~85%). It was located in the south-central region of the Indian subcontinent, and was ruled, from 1724 until 1948, by a hereditary Nizam. In 1947, under the rule of the then Nizam, Osman Ali Khan, it was the oldest existing Muslim Empire in India. Although landlocked, with an area of over 200,000 sq. km and a population of over 16 million, Hyderabad was self sufficient in food, cotton and coal. The Nizam owend over 10% of the land of the state and most of the rest was owned by large landlords and very rich nobles. The bulk of the population, both Muslims and Hindus, worked as factory hands, artisans, labourers and pesants. The Nizam had ascended the throne as far back as in 1911 and was one of the richest men in the world. 

In 1946-47, the Nizam was determined to continue his rule over the state after the British left. In his discussions with the viceroy, Lord Mountbatten, the Nizam emphasized that if pressed into signing the Instrument of Accession he would seriously consider joining Pakistan. Such an alternative if realized would cut the young nation into two halves. Experts pointed out that India might be able to live with its two arms in the Northwest and the Northeast cut off but may not survive without its midriff. 

Princely State of Hyderabad

In the conflict the Indian Union was supported by the Hyderabad State Congress which pressed hard for Hyderabad to meger with the rest of India. Its leaders organized protests, rallies and courted mass arrests. The Nizam was supported by Ittihad-ul-Muslimeen (meaning 'Unity of Muslims') party which in 1946-47 was getting increasingly radicalized by its new leader, Kasim Razvi. Under him, the Ittihad had developed a militia called the 'Razzakars' whose armed members demanded an independent Hyderabad. 

The Nizam's ambitions gained strength from the support of the Conservative Party of Britain. Even Winston Churchill stood in support of the Nizam and speaking in the House of Commons argued that Britain had a personal obligation not to allow one of its frinedly states that had declared its sovereignity to be strangled, starved out or actually overborne by violence. The Nizam and specially the Razzakars found further strength from the support shown by Pakistan. Jinnah had declared to Mountbatten that if Congress attempted to take over Hyderabad, every Muslim in the subcontinent would rise to defend it. 

On 15th August, 1947, the same day India became independent, the Nizam declared the independence of Hyderabad. Alarmed by the idea of an independent Hyderabad in the middle of India,  the Indian government offered Hyderabad a 'Standstill Agreement' which made an assurance that the status quo would be maintained and no military action would be taken. Under the agreement multiple discussions were held between Indian representative, K M Munshi and the Nizam's dewan, Mir Laik Ali. However no common grounds could be reached. By March, 1948 the Razzakar militia had grown in strength to over 1 lakh and the real power in Hyderabad had passed to Kasim Rizvi. The Razzakars saw the entire struggle in communal light while the Congress on the other hand saw it as a fight between democracy and autocracy. As months passed the tension grew as there were rumurs of arms supply to Hyderabad from Pakistan and the flood of Hindu refugees kept flowing into adjoining Inidian provinces. 

On 24 August 1948, Hyderabad formally asked the Secretary General of the new United Nations Organization for its Security Council, under Article 32 of theUnited Nations Charter, to consider the "grave dispute, which, unless settled in accordance with international law and justice, is likely to endanger the maintenance of international peace and security." This provoked the Indian Union to take military action before the UN could intervene. 

Razzakar Units

On 13th September 1948 Indian troops invaded Hyderabad from all points of the compass in a campaign code named"Operation Polo" because at that time, Hyderabad state had some 17 polo grounds, the largest number in India. The fighting lasted four days and was mostly between the Indain army and the Razzakars. Around 32 Indian soilders were killed in the operation while the losses suffered by Hyderabad state forces and Irregular forces combined were 1,863 killed, 122 wounded, and 3,558 captured. On 17th September the Nizam spoke on the radio calling on the people of Hyderabad to live in peace and harmony with the rest of the people of India. 

For his final accesstion to India, the Nizam was rewarded with the designation of Rajpramukh (governor) of the newly formed state of Hyderabad but resigned from this office when the states were re-organized in 1956 on linguistic basis and large parts of Hyderabad state went to Bombay State, Andhra Pradesh and Gujarat. Many officials and members of the royal family fled and re-settled in Pakistan where they now live.

Razvi was placed under house arrest and tried under Indian laws on seditious activities and inciting communal violence. He was jailed 1948-1957. He agreed to migrate to Pakistan as a condition of his release from prison.His family had been residing there since 1949.

TIME Correspondent Robert Lubar, together with a LIFE reporter and photographer, set out in a hired 1935 Ford to have a look at the war between India and Hyderabad. The Indian army had undertaken a "police action" (which it also called a "mission of mercy") against Hyderabad, whose predominantly Hindu population was ruled by a stubborn Moslem Nizam. The would-be war correspondents sped 180 miles toward the front, found that the war was over by the time they got there. All in all, it had been one of the shortest, happiest wars ever seen. Cabled Lubar: 

Everyone is satisfied. The aggressive section of Indian public opinion has been appeased. Hyderabad, which was never really out of India, is now indisputably part of India. There have been no terrible outbreaks of communal violence. The Nizam, who capitulated in four days and 13 hours, satisfied the demands of his ego for at least a token fight. Said Lieut. General Sir Maharaj Rajendrasinghji, the Indian generalissimo: "It is not our job to hurt anybody who is law-abiding." This presumably included the Hyderabad army. There were no casualty reports (by the best available count, twelve Indian soldiers were killed). 

Just the same, eager Indian war correspondents sent back reports which turned up under headlines like NIZAM'S FORTRESS TOWNS FALL LIKE NINEPINS. The reports failed to mention that the fortresses had been built in the 15th Century. 

"He Is Sorry." At the Hyderabad border we were greeted by Hindu peasants who were obviously all for the Indian "invaders." At Naldrug camp, where we breakfasted, soldiers were gathered around a radio listening to a rebroadcast of the Nizam's surrender speech. A soldier translated the gist to me: "He is sorry. He wants to be friends."

Post Independence Integration - The Joining of Travencore

In 1946-47 around 565 princely states existed in India. Some like Kashmir, Mysore and Hyderabad were larger than many European nations while others were tiny jagirs of a few villages. Within two years of independence more than 500 of these princely states were dissolved into fourteen new administrative units of India. During this period only six states resisted integration one of the first being Travancore.

Travancore was strategically located at the extreme south tip of the subcontinent (now mostly parts of Kerela). It had the most highly educated populace in India, a well established and thriving maritime trade and large deposits of monazite from which is extracted thorium used for production of atomic energy and atom bombs. Travancore also had a strong maritime warfare history. Its sinking of the Dutch fleet in 1741 is apparently the only naval defeat ever inflicted by an Asian country on an European power. With its capital in Trivandrum, it was ruled by the Travancore Royal Family. Travancore Royal family descended from the Chera Dynasty and had ruled since the 1700s.

Kingdom of Travancore

In 1947 Travancore was ruled by Sree Chithira Thirunal, the Maharaja of Travancore. His dewan was Sir C P Ramaswamy Aiyar, a brilliant lawyer who had held that post for the past sixteen years. Even as early as February, 1946 Sir C P had made clear his views that once the British left, Travancore would become a perfectly independent country. In his quest for independence Sir C P found support with the politicians in London who foresaw an independent Travancore as a crucial source of monazite for the imminent Cold War. The Travancore government had already signed an agreement with the British government for supply of monazite. Travancore's bid for independence was also supported by Mohammad Ali Jinnah and the Muslim League. In June 1947, Jinnah wrote to Sir C P a wire welcoming Travancore's decision for independence and emphasizing keenness in establishing a long lasting relationship between Travancore and Pakistan. Empowered by these developments, in July the dewan wrote to the government of Madras that Travancore was taking steps to maintain its independent entity and that it was ready to sign a treaty between the Sovereign State of Travancore and the Dominion Governments of both India and Pakistan.

Sir CP Ramaswamy Aiyar

While the Maharaja and his dewan were keen on establishing an independent state, a large majority of the people had strong pro-India nationalist feelings. Both, Congress and the Communist Party of India had strong presence in the State. In July, the dewan went to Delhi and met with Lord Mountbatten clearly expressing Travancore's decision on maintaining independence. Port the meeting V P Menon tried to persuade Sir C P to sign the Treaty of Accession. However, Sir C P remained adamant and said that he would prefer to negotiate with the Indian nation. Clearly laying Travancore's position, Sir C P returned to Travancore, his mind firmly set on independence.

On 25th July, 1947 while on his way to a music concert in Trivandrum, Sir C P was attacked by a knife wielding member of the Kerela Socialist Party, knifed in the face and body and had to be rushed off for emergency surgery. The impact of this was immediate. The Congress party turned the heat on Travancore ffor accession and the Maharaja immediately gave in. On July 30th the Maharaja wired the viceroy his decision to accede to the Indian Union.

Had it not been for the freak incident, the geo-political landscape of our country today may have been different.