Medieval Folklore - The Meeting of Guru Nanak and Emperor Babur

During the early sixteenth century, Babur set out of Afghanistan to conquer Hindustan. On his way he sacked the mercantile city of Multan in the Province of Sind. It so happened that Guru Nanak, on the third of his preaching tours, had reached Multan by foot shortly before it was sacked. During the conquest of the city he was captured and brought to the tent of Babur.

The conversation between the two became folklore. Babur and his generals were celebrating the victory with wine and seeing Guru Nanak he said:

Hamari bazme mehfil main jo le aaya Khuda baba,

To bismillah bade razaye ahmer chadha baba.

Surahi kholti hai raz-a-dil jab bag kal kal se,

Falak se hain pukar uthte malayak marhaba baba.

(Translation:

Now that God has brought you to our gathering o holy man,

Taking it as a sign from Him you should join us and start drinking.

As the bottle opens the heart's secrets flow like the wine,

And even angels from heaven call out in praise of the gathering.)

To this Guru Nanak replied:

Hum bhi maykhar hain lekin,

Wo may apni hai jisko bin piye makhmoor rehte hain.

Khayale chashme saki ke nashe main choor rehte hain.

(Translation:

I too am a drinker, however,

The wine which I drink is always inside me, and even without drinking,

In the thoughts of the one and only wine provider (God) I am always drunk.)

Babur very much affected, granted Guru Nanak his liberty.

Courtesy: Dr Sudha Sinha (Professor of History, Ranchi University)

Modern History: The Liberation of Bangladesh

Background:

During the partition of India, Pakistan gained independence on 14th August, 1947. Pakistan was created out of Muslim majority regions in the West and the East of the Indian nation. The western zone was officially called West Pakistan and the eastern zone (the now Bangladesh) was named East Pakistan. The capital of Pakistan was established in Karachi in West Pakistan and then moved to Islamabad in 1958.

In the entire period of 1947-71, East Pakistan was suppressed economically, politically and culturally by its western counterpart. While the populations of both the regions were nearly same, in 1950-1970 the overall government spending on East Pakistan was only 34% of what was spent on West Pakistan. Moreover it was felt that much of the income generated by the east was primarily diverted towards fighting wars in Kashmir. The political power also resided with West Pakistan with all national governments and major military leadership coming from there. Due to the differences between the two states, a nascent separatist movement developed in East Pakistan. Any such movements were sharply limited, especially when martial law was in force between 1958 and 1962 (under General Ayub Khan) and between 1969 and 1972 (under General Yahya Khan).

The already tense situation was further aggravated by a tropical cyclone that struck East Pakistan in 1970. It was a particularly devastating year as the deadliest cyclone on record—the Bhola cyclone—struck Bangladesh claiming nearly half a million lives. The apathy of West Pakistan leadership and its failure in responding quickly was a further platform for the Awami League (the leading political party of East Pakistan), that capitalized on this tragedy. In 1970 the political tussle between East and West Pakistan reached its climax. In the national elections held that year the Awami League, led by Sheikh Mujibur Rehman, won a landslide victory winning 167 of 169 seats allotted for East Pakistan and hence a majority of the 313 total seats in the National Assembly. This gave Awami League the right to form the government in Islamabad. However, the leader of Pakistan People's Party, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, refused to allow Rahman to become the Prime Minister of Pakistan. On March 3rd 1971, the two leaders of the two wings along with the President General Yahya Khan met in Dhaka to decide the fate of the country. Talks failed. Sheikh Mujibur Rahman called for a nation-wide strike.

On 25th march, 1971 the Pakistani army, in order to suppress nationalist feelings in East Pakistan, launched a planned military pacification codenamed Operation Searchlight. The target of the operation was to take control of all major cities and eliminate all opposition political or military within one month. Before the beginning of the operation, all foreign journalists were systematically deported from East Pakistan. The operation began the 1971 Bangladesh atrocities. . The international media have published casualty figures which vary greatly, from 5,000–35,000 in Dhaka, and 200,000–3,000,000 for Bangladesh as a whole, and the atrocities have been referred to as acts of genocide.

Although the violence focused on the provincial capital, Dhaka, the process of ethnic elimination was also carried out all around Bangladesh. Residential halls of University of Dhaka were particularly targeted. The only Hindu residential hall—the Jagannath Hall—was destroyed by the Pakistani armed forces, and an estimated 600 to 700 of its residents were murdered. By midnight, Dhaka was literally burning, especially the Hindu dominated eastern part of the city. By midnight, Dhaka was literally burning, especially the Hindu dominated eastern part of the city.

On March 26, 1971, M. A. Hannan, an Awami League leader from Chittagong, is said to have made the first announcement of the declaration of independence over radio,

Sheikh Mujibur Rahman signed an official declaration that read:

Today Bangladesh is a sovereign and independent country. On Thursday night West Pakistani armed forces suddenly attacked the police barracks at Razarbagh and the EPR headquarters at Pilkhana in Dhaka. Many innocent and unarmed have been killed in Dhaka city and other places of Bangladesh. Violent clashes between EPR and Police on the one hand and the armed forces of Pakistan on the other are going on. The Bengalis are fighting the enemy with great courage for an independent Bangladesh. May God aid us in our fight for freedom. Joy Bangla.

Sheikh Mujibur Rahman

25 March 1971

March 26, 1971 is hence considered the official Independence Day of Bangladesh and the name Bangladesh was in effect thereafter.

The Path to War:

As the spirit of independence set in, the resistance to the occupying forces from West Pakistan increased. Mukti Bahini, the underground resistance organization, which had been fighting for independence of Bangladesh for a long time became increasingly active. The Pakistani military sought to quell them, but increasing numbers of Bengali soldiers defected to the underground "Bangladesh army". These Bengali units slowly merged into the Mukti Bahini and bolstered their weaponry with supplies from India. On 17 April 1971, a provisional government was formed in Meherpur district in western Bangladesh bordering India with Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, who was in prison in Pakistan, as President, Syed Nazrul Islam as Acting President, Tajuddin Ahmed as Prime Minister, and General Muhammad Ataul Ghani Osmani as Commander-in-Chief, Bangladesh Forces.

As the civil war escalated and the resistance to occupation grew, so did the repression by the Pakistan army. Right from the start of Operation Searchlight and all through the Bangladesh Liberation War, there were numerous human rights abuses in Bangladesh carried out by the Pakistan Army. Bangladeshi authorities claim that as many as 3 million people were killed, with 300,000 to 500,000 being a figure quoted by news outlets such as the BBC for the estimated death toll as counted by independent researchers. The Hindu minority (forming around 15% of the population) suffered the most. According to Time magazine report on 2 August 1971, "The Hindus, who account for three-fourths of the refugees and a majority of the dead, have borne the brunt of the Pakistani military hatred." The reprisals and the civil war led to a sea of refugees, estimated to be around 10 million, flooding into the eastern provinces of India. Sympathetic to the Bangladeshi independence cause and facing a mounting humanitarian and economic crisis, India started actively aiding and organising the Bangladeshi resistance through Mukti Bahini. Most of Mukti Bahini’s training camps were situated near the border area in India and were operated with active support from India. Three brigades (11 Battalions) were raised for conventional warfare; a large guerrilla force (estimated at 100,000) was trained. A large part of the training and arms and ammunition was provided by the Indian army. Three brigades (8 infantry battalions and 3 artillery batteries) were put into action between July – September. After receiving sufficient training, guerrilla operations picked up after August. Targets of economic and military importance were attacked in Dhaka and other major cities. A major success was Operation Jackpot, in which naval commandos mined and blew up berthed ships in Chittagong on 16th August 1971. The Pakistani army’s retaliation was also swift and brutal and thousands of civilians were killed.

Between October-December, the attacks by Bangladeshi conventional army as well as the guerrilla attacks intensified as did Pakistani reprisals on civilian populations. 90 out of 370 BOPs fell to Bengali forces. Pakistani forces were reinforced by eight battalions from West Pakistan. The Bangladeshi army managed to temporarily capture airstrips at Lalmonirhat and Shalutikar. Both were used to fly in in supplies and arms from India. Pakistan sent another 5 battalions from West Pakistan as reinforcements.

The War:

 Pakistan had grown increasingly weary of India’s involvement in what it considered its internal civil unrest. Moreover jingoism and anti India sentiments had increased incessantly in Pakistan fuelled by the ruling party and the military. On 3rd December 1971, he Pakistan Air Force (PAF) launched a pre-emptive strike on Indian Air Force bases. The attack was based on the Israeli Air Force's Operation Focus during the Six-Day War, and intended to neutralize the Indian Air Force planes on the ground. This marked the official start of the Indo-Pakistani War. Mrs Indira Gandhi then ordered the immediate mobilization of troops and launched a full scale invasion. This involved Indian forces in a massive coordinated air, sea, and land assault on both the western and eastern borders. Indian Air Force started flying sorties against Pakistan from midnight of 3rd December. The Indian objective was to prevent Pakistani invasion on the western front while making rapid advances on the eastern front and liberating Bangladesh.

INS Vikrant

The Indian navy under the command of Vice Admiral S.N. Kohli, successfully attacked Karachi's port in Operation Trident on the night of 4–5 December. The operation sank Pakistani destroyer PNS Khyber and a minesweeper PNS Muhafiz and PNS Shah Jahan was badly damaged. 720 Pakistani sailors were killed or wounded, and Pakistan lost reserve fuel and many commercial ships, thus crippling the Pakistan Navy's further involvement in the conflict. After Operation Trident, the Indian navy launched Operation Python when it re-attacked Karanchi port on 8-9 December and further destro reserve fuel tanks and the sank three Pakistani merchant ships. On the eastern front, the Indian Eastern Naval Command under Vice Admiral Krishnan, completely isolated East Pakistan through a naval blockade in the Bay of Bengal. This trapped the Eastern Pakistani Navy and eight foreign merchant ships in their ports. From 4th December onwards, the aircraft carrier INS Vikrant was deployed, and its Sea Hawk fighter-bombers attacked many coastal towns in East Pakistan including Chittagong and Cox's Bazaar. Pakistan countered the threat by sending the submarine PNS Ghazi, which sank en route under mysterious circumstances off Vishakapatnam's coast.

After the initial pre-emptive strike, PAF adopted a defensive stance in response to the Indian retaliation. In the east, the small air contingent of Pakistan Air Force No. 14 Sqn was destroyed, putting the Dhaka airfield out of commission and resulting in Indian air superiority in the east. India flew 1,978 sorties in the East and about 4,000 in the West, while PAF flew about 30 and 2,840. Pakistan lost 72 aircraft and about 65 IAF aircraft were lost. But the imbalance in air losses was explained by the IAF's considerably higher sortie rate, and its emphasis on ground-attack missions.

Mukti Bahini Training 

On ground, Pakistan attacked at several places along India's western border with Pakistan, but the Indian army successfully held their positions. The Indian Army quickly responded to the Pakistan Army's movements in the west and made some initial gains, including capturing around 5,500 square miles (14,000 km2) of Pakistan territory (land gained by India in Pakistani Kashmir, Pakistani Punjab and Sindh sectors was later ceded in the Simla Agreement of 1972, as a gesture of goodwill).  On the eastern front, The Indian Army, far superior in numbers and equipment to that of Pakistan, executed a three-pronged pincer movement on Dhaka launched from the Indian states of West Bengal, Assam, and Tripura. The Indian Army joined forces with the Mukti Bahini to form the Mitro Bahini ("Allied Forces"). The Indians quickly overran the country, selectively engaging or bypassing heavily defended strongholds. Pakistani forces were unable to effectively counter the Indian attack, as they had been deployed in small units around the border to counter guerrilla attacks by the Mukti Bahini. Unable to defend Dhaka, the Pakistanis surrendered on 16th December 1971.

On 16 December 1971, Lt. Gen A. A. K. Niazi, CO of Pakistan Army forces located in East Pakistan signed the Instrument of Surrender. Over 93,000 Pakistani troops surrendered to the Indian forces, making it the largest surrender since World War II.

During the war, the Pakistan Army and its local collaborators carried out a systematic execution of the leading Bengali intellectuals. A number of professors from Dhaka University were killed during the first few days of the war. However, the most extreme cases of targeted killing of intellectuals took place during the last few days of the war. Professors, journalists, doctors, artists, engineers, writers were rounded up by Pakistan Army and the Razakar militia in Dhaka, blindfolded, taken to torture cells in Mirpur, Mohammadpur, Nakhalpara, Rajarbagh and other locations in different sections of the city to be executed en masse, most notably at Rayerbazar and Mirpur.

The After-affects:

In Pakistan, the defeat and dismemberment of half the nation was a shocking loss to top military and layman alike. The myth of the Pakistan Army's might was shattered and the leadership stood exposed. Yahya Khan's dictatorship collapsed and gave way to Bhutto who took the opportunity to rise to power.

Bangladesh sought admission into the UN, Most members voting in its favour but China vetoed recognition, as Pakistan was its key ally. However the United States grudgingly recognized it. To ensure a smooth transition, in 1972 the Shimla Agreement was signed between India and Pakistan. The treaty was a watershed in the history of the South Asian region as it ensured that Bangladesh would be officially recognized by Pakistan and its principal allies in exchange for the return of the Pakistani POWs.

Role of Foreign Nations:

USA and China supported Pakistan both materially and politically. The then president of USA, Nixon and his Secretary of State Henry Kissinger feared that a weakened Pakistan would help Soviet expansion into south and south east Asia and would weaken the regional position of USA’s new ally, China. During the civil war and the Indo-Pakistan war, Nixon sent military supplies to Pakistan and routed them through Jordan and Iran and also encouraged China to increase its arms supplies to Pakistan. In recent years, Kissinger has come under fire for private comments he made to Nixon during the Bangladesh-Pakistan War in which he described  Indira Gandhi as a " bitch" and a "witch". He also said "The Indians are bastards," shortly before the war.

The Soviets, recognizing that the independence of Bangladesh would weaken both United States and China in south Asia, supported India and Mukti Bahini during the war. The support to India was penned in a treaty signed in August 1971. When Pakistan's defeat seemed certain, Nixon sent the aircraft carrier USS Enterprise to the Bay of Bengal, a move deemed by the Indians as a nuclear threat. Enterprise arrived on station on 11 December 1971. On 6th and 13th December, the Soviet Navy dispatched two groups of ships, armed with nuclear missiles, from Vladivostok; they trailed U.S. Task Force 74 in the Indian Ocean from 18th December until 7th of January 1972. The Soviets also sent a nuclear submarine to counter the threat posed by USS Enterprise in the Indian Ocean.

At the end of the war, the Warsaw Pact countries were among the first to recognize Bangladesh. The Soviet Union accorded recognition to Bangladesh on 25th January 1972. The United States delayed recognition for some months, before according it on 8 April 1972.

Medieval Folklore - How a blinded Prithviraj Chauhan shot down Muhammad Ghori

Prithviraj Chauhan (1149–1192 AD) was the ruler of Ajmer and Delhi in the 12th century AD. During his time, Afghan ruler Muhammad Ghori invaded India. Prithviraj Chauhan defeated Ghori in 1191 AD in the first battle of Tarain. However, Prithviraj released the vanquished Ghori and let him travel back out of India. However, Muhammad Ghori started to regroup his forces again and returned to challenge Prithviraj at the Second Battle of Tarain in 1192 AD.

In an epic battle, Prithviraj was defeated and captured by the Afghan forces. Muhammad Ghori had the captured king's eyes burnt with red hot iron rods and took the blinded Prithviraj back with him to Gazni. Along with the king went his trusted poet and advisor, Chand Bardai.

In Gazni, Prithviraj was regularly brought to Ghori's court and taunted and insulted by Ghori and his courtiers. To avenge his insult, Prithviraj and Chand Bardai devised a plan for retribution. Chand Bardai told Ghori that Prithviraj, a renouned archer, was an expert in "Shabd-Bhedi Baan", ie, could hit a target blind folded just by hearing the sound it made. Ghori was immediately interested in seeing such skills and called for an archery display in his court. The blind Prithviraj was brought in and handed a bow and an arrow. A goat was tied to a pillar and Prithviraj was told to display his skills by killing the goat. 

Instead, Chand Bardai skilfully told the king the seating position of Ghori through the following couplet:

Char Bans Chaubi Gag, ungal asat parman;

Ta upar sultan hai, mat chuke Chauhan.

(Four Bamboo lengths in front, then twenty four hands and eight fingers in height, the sultan is sitting. Don’t miss him Chauhan)

Prithviraj Chauhan, based on the directions of his poet friend, lined up his arrow and shot Muhammad Ghori through his throat. Before the Afghans could capture both the Rajput warriors, Prithviraj and Chand Bardai stabbed each other.

(image source: India Book House / http://www.hindubooks.org)

Images from Indian History: Rana Pratap attacking Mughal commander Man Singh in the Battle of Haldighati

On June 21 1576, a smaller Rajput army lead by Rana Pratap fought the Mughal army at Haldighati for the independence of Mewar.


Three interesting things can be seen in the statue. Rana's horse Chetak has an artificial trunk attached to his face. The Rajput army had disguised their cavalry with artificial trunks so that the Mughal elephants would confuse them with their own elephants and would not attack them.

As Rana Pratap charges with his bhala (javelin), Man Singh ducks behind his mahawat (driver). The driver was killed by the javelin while Man Singh survived.

Man Singh's elephant has a sword attached to its trunk. As Pratap's horse moved away after the attack, the elephant cut off one of its hind legs. As the Mughals surrounded Pratap, the brave horse Chetak, carried off his master away from the battlefield on three working legs. On reaching safe grounds Chetak died.

(Haldighati, around 40 Km from Udaipur in Rajasthan)

 — at Haldighati, Rajasthan.

Medieval History - The Secret Will of Babur

Babur was born in 1483 AD in Farghana, a small principality in Central Asia. He ascended its throne in 1494 at the age of twelve at a difficult time when his small empire was surrounded on all sides by enemies. And so began his career which was more full of defeats and disappointments than victories and successes, until he died, in Agra, on December 26, 1530 at an early age of 47. 

He fought dangerous battles against Uzbegs, Chaghtais, Turks and Afghans; some of which proved nearly disastrous to him. Thrice he captured Samarqand, the capital of his forefathers, but every time he was driven out. He moved to Kabul, which he captured in 1504, and then to Hindustan. On his sixth invasion, he defeated the much larger army of Ibrahim Lodhi in the first Battle of Panipat in 1526 and finally overthrew the Lodhi empire. 

We know him as a general and founder of the Great Mughal Empire in India. What we do not know is that inspite of his 36 years' ventures in war, he was essentially a man of peace: an honest and a graphic chronicler, an author, a poet, whose two diwans (collections of poems) have come down to us; an ardent lover of nature and maker of beautiful gardens; and, above all, a humanist. 

Garden-craft was his unique contribution to the art and culture of this country which he finally adopted as his home. These gardens comprised of several receding terraces with a central canal, on a charbagh (four quartered) plan, associated with such other water devices shallow canals, lotus ponds and fountains. The gardens also consisted of architectural features like pathways, parterres and tree-avenues. It was upon his legacy that his successors developed such world famous terraced gardens as the Nishat and the Shalamar in Kashmir, tomb-gardens as those of Taj Mahal and palace gardens as in Red Fort and in Agra Fort.

Babur was a devout Sunni Muslim but there was no reference to suggest he was a bigot, or even an orthodox, and that he ever indulged in any iconoclastic measures during his 26 years of military campaign from Kabul to Ganga. so free was he of any worldly greed, religious bias or any other rigidity that he earned the title 'Qalander' (recluse). Throught his life he maintained a liberal view towards fine arts: poetry, music and painting. Babur was kindly disposed towards all his non-Muslim subjects with whom he practiced and advocated a policy of peaceful co-existence, tolerance and non-interference in their religious matters. An extremely important document is on record to vouchsafe for this particular phenomenon. 

In his own secret will, which he addressed to his son and heir Humayun, on January 11, 1529,  when he was staying at 'Bag-e-Nulufar' (the Lotus Garden) at Dholpur in Rajesthan, he wrote:

"Alll praise to Allah. Secret will of Zahir'al-Din Muhammed Babur to his son Prince Nasir'al-Din Muhammed Humayun. May God prolong his life. Written for the strength of the Empire. O my son, the empire of Hindustan consists of various religions. Dominations and sovereignty where of has been bestowed on you by the grace of the Almighty. It is incumbent that religious bigotries be wiped off the tablet of the heart, and justice meted out to each religion. Specially abstain from sacrifice of cows as this would tend to win the hearts of the people of Hindustan and the  populance of the country would be loyal to the Royal favours. The temples and places of worship of whatever religion under the Royal authority may not be desecrated. Such justice may be adopted that the King may be pleased with the Rayyat (subjects) and the Rayyat with the King. Overlook the dispute between the Shias and Sunnis since such weakness still persists in Islam. Establish administration with the Rayyat of various communities in accordance with the four principal elements so that the body of the empire may be free from different diseases. The model work done by his late Majesty Timur (Tamerlane) Sahib Qiran should always be kept before the mind so that you become mature in the work of administration."

Thus did Babur lay down the policy of governance of this country based on religious tolerance which was taken forward by Humayun and later Akbar. He warned his successors not to meddle in the religious affairs of the people and to leave them free to practice their religion in accordance with their own faiths and beliefs.  

(Excerpts from the article of Mr R Nath as published in The Hindu,  June 26, 1994)

Ancient History:India, the Last Campaign of Alexander

In 327 BC, after his conquest of Syria, Egypt and Persia Alexander made his way into India. Alexander and his army were driven by the desire to conquer the entire world. Through the writings of Herodotus the Greeks were also aware of the vast riches of India. The geopolitical scenario of north western India was also suitable for an easy conquest. There were a motley of independent monarchies and tribal republics which were fiercely independent and in perpetual conflict with each other. Among the rulers of these territories, two were well known Ambhi, the prince of Taxila, and Porus whose kingdom lay between the Jhelum and the Chenab. Together they might have effectively resisted the armies of Alexander. However, their own animosity prevented them from forming an alliance to challenge the Greeks and the Khyber pass remained unguarded.

After his conquest of Persia, Alexander moved on to Kabul, from where he marched to India through the Khyber pass and crossed the Indus. As Alexander crossed the Indus King Ambhi surrendered Taxila to Alexander without any resistance and offered allegiance.

However, Alexander's army was given stiff resistance in the Battle of Hydaspes (Jhelum River) by the armies of king Porus. Porus had an army of around 50,000 infantry, 4000 cavalry, 300 war chariots and 200 war elephants.  This was the first time that the Macedonians saw war elephants and suffered severe losses. For one thing, the Macedonian horses would not go anywhere near the elephants. As result, they had to attack the giant beasts on foot. This resulted in the death of many of Alexander’s men who were either trampled under the elephants’ feet, impaled by elephants’ ivory tusks, or were killed by Indian archers sitting on top of the elephants. The battle raged for eight hours and the Macedonians suffered many casualties, more than in any other campaign. However, in the end the Macedonians overcame the forces of Porus. Alexander captured Porus, who had been wounded in the battle, and, like the other rulers he had defeated allowed him to continue governing his territory as his vassal. In this battle Alexanders horse, Bucephalus, was wounded and died. Alexander had ridden Bucephalus in everyone of his battles in Greece and Asia, so when it died, he was grief stricken. The victory was commemorated by the foundation of two towns, one named Nikaia, situated on the battlefield, and the other, named Boukephala, situated at the point whence Alexander had started to cross the Hydaspes. 

After his victory over Porus, Alexander ventured further east conquering lands along the Indus river. However, his spies brought back news of the existence of the powerful Magdha Empire under the Nanda Dynasty eastwards in the Ganges planes. According to Plutarch, the Magdha army numbered 200,000 infantry, 80,000 cavalry, 8,000 chariots, and 6,000 war elephants, which was discouraging for Alexander's men and stayed their further progress into India."As for the Macedonians, however, their struggle with Porus blunted their courage and stayed their further advance into India. For having had all they could do to repulse an enemy who mustered only twenty thousand infantry and two thousand horse, they violently opposed Alexander when he insisted on crossing the river Ganges also, the width of which, as they learned, was thirty-two furlongs, its depth a hundred fathoms, while its banks on the further side were covered with multitudes of men-at‑arms and horsemen and elephants. For they were told that the kings of the Ganderites and Praesii were awaiting them with eighty thousand horsemen, two hundred thousand footmen, eight thousand chariots, and six thousand fighting elephants. And there was no boasting in these reports." - Plutarch, Parallel Lives, Life of Alexander. Facing mutiny Alexander turned back at the Beas river.This happened at the Hyphasis (modern Beas), the exact spot being believed to be at 'Kathgarh' in Indora tehsil of Himachal Pradesh.

Though Alexander's invasion was limited to the peripheries of the subcontinent and he never came in contact with any of the great states of India on the Ganges planes, it had its own socio-political effects. For one it paved the way for the political unification of the country and the rise of the first Indian empire under Chandragupta Maurya. Direct contact and trade was established between the Mediterranean civilizations and those of Punjab and western India. The establishment of Greek empire in the in the north-west of India gave rise to the Gandhara style of sculpture.

Vijaynagar Empire - The Last Hindu Empire of South India

The Beginning:

The Vijayanagara Empire was founded in 1336 AD by the two brothers Harihara I and Bukka Raya I with the purpose of stemming the tide of rising Muslim power in South India. The empire lasted till 1660 AD, though it lost most of its power after its defeat and destruction in 1565 AD by the combined forces of the Deccan sultanates in the Battle of Tallikota.

Before the rise of the Vijayanagara Empire by 1336 AD, the Hindu kingdoms of the Deccan, the Yadava Empire of Devagiri, the Kakatiya Kingdom of Warangal, the Pandyan Empire of Madurai, and the tiny kingdom of Kampili had all been defeated by Alla-ud-din Khilji and subsequently Muhammad bin Tughluq, the Sultans of Delhi. Harihara and Bukka were treasury officers of in the court of the  last Kakatiya king Prataparudra of Warangal. The then Delhi Sultan, Muhammad bin Tughluq, captured and converted the brothers to Islam and sent them back to put down the rebellion of the Hoysala kingdom. The brothers successfully completed the task but came under the influence of Vidyaranya, the sage of Sringeri monastery, who reconverted the brothers to Hinduism and guided them to establish the kingdom of Vijayanagar to safeguard Hindu religion. He later served as a mentor and guide to three generations of kings who ruled over the Vijayanagar empire.

Folklore has it that when the brothers were travelling with Vidyaranya, they witnessed a rabbit chasing a dog. Vidyaranya seeing the miracle, planned to establish the kingdom there. He identified a muhurat (auspicious time) at which the foundation stone needed to be laid so that the new empire would last for the coming 2000 years. The sage instructed the two brothers that he would stand on the next hilltop, observe the celestial star positions and blow the shankha (conch) on hearing which they should lay the foundation stone. After some time, Harihara and Bukka heard the sound of a shankha and laid the foundation stone. But soon after there was a second blow of the shankha. When Vidyaranya returned he asked them for which sound they laid the stone, to which they replied, the first one. To their dismay, the guru told them that the first blow of conch was by a traveling begger.Vidyaranya calculated the horoscope for the time at which the first sound was heard.  Based on his calculations he predicted that the empire would last for only 200 years. The Vijaynagra empire declined after its defeat in 1565 to the Deccan Sultanates, 229 years after its establishment.

The Rise:

Over its existance the Vijayanagra empire was ruled by four dynasties - Sangama Dynasty, Saluva Dynasty, Tuluva Dynasty and Aravidu Dynasty.

Over the next two centuries after its establishment the Vijayanagar empire dominated all of southern India, and was probably stronger than any other power in the subcontinent. The empire during that period served as a  tide breaker against invasion from the Muslim Sultanates from Northern India and remained in a state of constant cconflict with the five Deccan Sultanates- Bijapur, Golkonda, Ahmadnagar, Bidar, and Berar, that established themselves in the Deccan to the north of it. 

The empire reached the peal of its power and prosperity during the reign of Tuluva king,Krishnadevaraya. Krishnadevaraya, who ruled 1509 - 1529 AD, was a great administrator, general, patron of art, music, dance and literature and an accomplished poet himself in Telugu. Telugu people especially consider him as the greatest king ever to rule the Āndhradeśa (Telugu land) and his reign is considered as Swarnayuga (Golden period or Zenith) in the cultural and literary history of Telugus. During his reign he repeatedly defeated the five Deccan Sultanates . The highlight of his conquests occurred on May 19, 1520 where he secured the fortress of Raichur from Ismail Adil Shah of Bijapur after a difficult siege. His empire extended over the whole of South India.

Under the Vijayanagra empire Kannada and Telgu literature flourished. Poets, scholars and philosophers wrote in Kannada, Sanskrit and Telugu and covered a wide breadth of subjects including religion, biography, fiction, music, grammar, poetry and medicine. The Kannada poets and scholars of the empire produced important writings supporting the Vaishnava Bhakti movement. Kumara Vyasa, the most notable of Brahmin scholars wrote Gadugina Bharata, a translation of the epic Mahabharata. This work marks a transition of Kannada literature from old Kannada to modern Kannada. This period was also the age of Srinatha, the greatest of all Telugu poets, who wrote books like Marutratcharitamu and Salivahana-sapta-sati.

Narsimha Statue in Vijaynagar

Vijayanagara architecture was a combination of the Chalukyan, Hoysalan, Pandyan and Cholan styles. This mingling of the South Indian styles resulted in a richness not seen in earlier centuries, a focus on reliefs in addition to sculpture that surpasses that previously in India. Another component of the Vijayanagara style sculpture is the carving of large monoliths such as the Sasivekalu (mustard) Ganesha and Kadalekalu (ground nut) Ganesha at Hampi, the Gommateshvara Bahubali statues in Karkala and Venur, and the Nandi bull in Lepakshi. While the empire is well known for its monuments in the regal capital, Vijayanagara, it also built many temples in other areas of South India.

The Decline:

After Krishnadevaraya's death, the kingdom passed to Achyuta Raya, upon whose demise in 1542, the throne came to his nephew Sadashiva Raya, who was then a minor. Rama Raya, son-in-law of Krishnadevaraya, appointed himself regent and ruled the empire having confined Sadashiva Raya. During his rule, the Deccan Sultanates were constantly involved in internal fights and requested Rama Raya on more than one occasion to act as a mediator. This enabled Rama Raya to play one Sultan against the other and push north of Krishna river and expand his domains utilizing the disunity of the Deccan Sultans.Over the period the Sultans became suspicious of Rama Raya's intents and their fears brought them together to form an alliance. Intermarraige between Sultanate families also helped solve internal differences between the Muslim rulers. This consolidation of Muslim power in the northern Deccan resulted eventually in the Battle of Talikota. 

On January 26, 1565 the Deccan Sultanates of Ahmednagar, Bidar, Bijapur and Golconda formed a grand alliance and met the Vijayanagara army at Talikota. The army of Vijayanagara was routed Rama Raya was killed. Hiis head was annually covered with oil and red pigment and exhibited in Ahmednagar till 1829. The victorious armies pillaged the capital and completely destroyed the city of Vijayanagara which never recovered from the onslaught. With this, the last significant Hindu state in the Deccan came to an end. Tirumala Raya, the sole survivor left Vijayanagar with treasure on back of 550 elephants to Penukonda. 

The Birth of Satyagraha: Gandhi's Fight for Indian Rights in South Africa

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi

The Gandhian era is divided into two parts - (i) From 1893-1914 (South Africa) & (ii) From 1915-1948 (India). The twenty years of struggle in South Africa were Gandhi's first experiment in political field and had long term impact on his philosophy and leadership.

In 1890-91 some 150,000 emigrants were settled in South Africa,most of which resided in Natal district.The white population resented their presence and the British government there encouraged the xenophobia by a series of oppressive measures designed to prevent the immigration of Asiatics.Through systematic persecution the life of the Indians were made intolerable.They were burdened with overwhelming taxes and subjected to most overwhelming police ordinances and exploitation of all sorts. In 1893 Gandhi arrived in Pretoria to deal with an important case. He was not familiar with the situation in South Africa but from the very beginning he started experiencing the difference between European society and the particular African sociey. In Natal and particulary in Dutch Traansval he was thrown out of hotels and trams, insulted, beaten and kicked.He could have returned to India but was bound by a contract of one year. But when he was about to leave he learnt that the South African Government was planning to pass a Bill depriving the Indians of their franchise.The Indians were helpless as they were unorganized and leaderless. Gandhi felt that it was his duty to defend them. He decided to continue his stay for another month, however he remained there for twenty years fighting for the rights of the Indians.

Then began an epic struggle between courage on one side and governmental power and brute force on the other.As a lawyer he took up the task to prove the illegality of the Asiatic Exclusion Act from the point of view of law and despite stiff opposition he won the case. Gandhi wanted to establish the principle that Indians were citizens of the British Empire and therefore entitled to equality under the law. Finally the Natal Act that was passed in 1897 met his demand of equal electoral rights for British subjects including Indians. This was his first victory on the African soil. He formed an association for educating the Indians known as Indian Congress in Natal. In 1904 he founded the  Phoneix Ashram near Durban. It was an agricultural colony built on Tolstoian lines where the inmates led a simple life and renounced materialism.

In 1906 was planning to draft a bill that that would spell absolute ruin for the Indians.The proposed ordinance required all Indian men,women and children over eight ,to register with the authorities,submit to finger printing and accept a certificate which they had to carry with themselves all the time. A person who failed to register could be imprisoned,fined or deported from Transval. This was highly objectionable to all the Indians and Gandhi decided to oppose it with all his strength. However in due course Transval adopted the Asiatic Registration Act on 31st July 1907.The Indians termed it as Black Act and prepared to offer satyagraha.They refused to get themselves registered failing which they were served notice to register or leave Transval. Refusing to do either, they were arrested and and brought before a magistrate in 1908.This was Gandhi's first term in jail. As a leader he asked for heaviest sentence from the judge as he was the leader of the movement. For the finance of the resistance movement Indians and Europeans in South Africa and Indians from India contributed considerable sums. Suggestions poured in on Gandhi to raise the entire question of Indian disabilities in South Africa and to mobilize the whole Indian community of the continent. But he decided that it was against the principles of Satyagraha to expand or to shift one's goal in the middle of the battle. The issue was of the right of the Indians to live in and enter the Transval only. Gandhi's sentence ended in 1908,but since civil resistance against the registration and emigration continued he was again sentenced to three month imprisonment on  25th February 1909.

Without relenting the Government was planning to extend the act to other parts of South Africa and the satyagraha movement was gaining ground.Gandhi decided to lobby in London.His trip to England made the South African Indian question a major imperial concern.

However,a third issue was added to the whole scenario when on 14th March 1913,a Justice of the Cape Colony Supreme Court ruled that only Christian marriages were legal in South Africa.This invalidated Hindu,Muslim and Parsi marriages and turned all Hindu wives into concubines without rights.This was highly unacceptable and a direct onslaught on the vanity of all Indian women. For the first time large number of women joined the resistance movement. The struggle grew in strength and the satyagraha was being seen as highly successful. Finally showing a reconciliatory gesture the government opened it's doors for negotiations. General Smuts and Gandhi finally exchanged letters after prolonged negotiations on 30th June 1914 which stated that Hindu,Moslem and Parsi marriages are valid, Indians could move  freely from one province to another and that three pound tax on unindentured labour in Natal was abolished.The settlement was a compromise which satisfied both the sides. Gandhi regarded the agreement as the Magna Carta of South African Indians. The victory was vindication of civil resistance. It was the victory of the moral force. "It is a force which if became universal,would revolutionize social ideals and do away with despotisms", Gandhi wrote in Indian Opinion.

The purity of Gandhi's methods made it difficult for General Smuts to oppose him. Victory came to Gandhi not when Smuts had no more strength to fight him but when he had no more heart to fight him.

Thus ended an era which taught the world the importance of civil disobedience and removed fear of governmental authority from people's mind. Mahatma Gandhi's credentials as a leader became well established and the scene of his fight against oppression and colonialism shifted to India.

Written by:
Shama Sonali
Asst. Professor, Dept. of Political Science,
Ranchi University,
India

Dandi March, the Beginning of Civil Disobedience and Mass Movement in Modern India

At midnight on 31st December, 1929, the Indian National Congress raised the tricolor for the first time on the banks of Ravi in Lahore and on 26th January 1930, led by Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru, it publicly issued the Declaration of Independence, or ‘Purna Swaraj’. But with the coming of these revolutionary events, the Congress was also in a dilemma. A new anti-government campaign was needed to unite the people of India and lay the foundations of a mass movement against the British Raj. By feburary, 1930 Gandhi’s mind was set to start a civil disobedience movement targeting the British salt tax. The 1882 Salt Act gave the British a monopoly on the collection and manufacture of salt, limiting its handling to government salt depots and levying a salt tax. Even though salt was freely available to those living on the coast (by evaporation of sea water), Indians were forced to purchase it from the British government. The choice of salt tax for satyagraha was ingenious on part of Gandhi and the Congress Working Committee for a number of reasons:

• The salt tax affected almost every Indian, irrespective of class, caste or religion
• Being an item of daily use salt was expected to resonate more with the masses than abstract demands of greater constitutional rights
• The Salt tax represented around 8% of the British Raj tax revenue

Gandhi felt that the protest would be meaningful to the lowliest Indian and would also build unity between the Hindus and Muslims by fighting for a cause that affected both the communities equally. Explaining his choice Gandhi had said “There is no article like salt, outside water, by taxing which the state can reach even the starving millions, the sick, the maimed and the utterly helpless. The tax constitutes, therefore, the most inhuman tax, the ingenuity of man can devise.” However, the British establishment did not take the treat of a salt tax resistance seriously. Lord Irwin, the Viceroy of India, wrote to London that “At present the prospect of a salt campaign does not keep me awake at night”.

 

From February, 1930, the preparations for the salt satyagraha began in ernest. The salt satyagraha would begin on March 12th from Sabarmati Ashram and end in Dandi with Gandhi breaking the Salt Act on April 6th. Gandhi chose April 6th to launch the mass breaking of the salt laws for a symbolic reason—it was the first day of "National Week", begun in 1919 when Gandhi conceived of the national hartal (strike) against the Rowlatt Act. The 24 day march of 390 km would pass through 4 districts and 48 villages. The route of the march was planned so as to maximize the recruitment potential for the march. Gandhi’s talks and events at each of the villages were scheduled and publicized in Indian and foreign press. On March 2nd, Gandhi wrote to Lord Irwin, laying down a 11 point Charter of Demands in his letter. These included a considerable reduction in the Pound-Sterling-Rupee exchange rate, curtailing of military budget, a fifty percent reduction in land revenue, preservation of indigenous textile machinery, abolition of Salt Tax and releasing political prisoners. Lord Irwin, however held the salt protest in disdain and ignored the demands laid down by Gandhi in his letter. As a result, on 12th March 1930, the salt satyagraha march to Dandi was set in motion.

 

Gandhi on Dandi March

On 12th March 1930 at 6:10 am Gandhi came out of his room, calm and composed. He offered prayers, looked at his watch and exactly at 6:30 am commenced his march with 78 volunteers. Following the commencement of his epic Dandi March, a tremendous wave of enthusiasm swept over the entire country. In cities like Clacutta, Madras, Bombay, Lahore, Delhi, Peshawar, Nargur, Ahmedabad and Allahabad, the ‘Satyagraha Day’ was celebrated by taking out processions, holding public meetings and unfurling of the tricolor. Meanwhile thousands of men, women and children accompanied the marching column for a few miles and thousands lined the route and showered flowers, coins, currency notes and kum kum at the satyagrahis. According to The Statesman, the official government newspaper which usually played down the size of crowds at Gandhi's functions, 100,000 people crowded the road that separated Sabarmati from Ahmedabad. At each of the stopovers across the route, Gandhi held public meetings with the villagers, emphasized the importance of salt and criticized the salt tax levied by the government. Each night the satyagrahis slept in the open, asking of the villagers nothing more than simple food and a place to rest and wash. Gandhi felt that this would bring the poor into the battle for independence, necessary for eventual victory.

Each day thousands of volunteers and prominent leaders like Sarojini Naidu joined the march. Foreign journalists closely followed the Dandi march and made Gandhi a household name in Europe and America. The New York Times wrote almost daily about the Salt march, including two front page articles on 6th and 7th April. When Gandhi reached Dandi on 5th April, he was greeted by a crowd of more than 50,000 people. The following morning, after a prayer, Gandhi raised a lump of salty mud and declared, "With this, I am shaking the foundations of the British Empire." He then boiled it in seawater, producing illegal salt. He called upon all his followers to likewise begin making salt along the seashore, "wherever it is convenient" and to instruct villagers in making illegal, but necessary, salt.

 

The effects of the salt march were felt across India. Millions broke the salt laws by making salt or buying illegal salt. What began as a salt satyagraha quickly grew into a mass movement of civil disobedience. British cloth and goods were boycotted, unpopular forest laws were defied in the Maharashtra, Carnatic and Central Provinces, Gujarati peasants refused to pay tax, under threat of losing their crops and land. As a reaction the British government imprisoned over 60,000 people in less than a month. The campaign also had a significant effect on changing world and British attitudes toward Indian independence and caused large numbers of Indians to join the fight for the first time. The satyagraha against the salt tax continued for almost a year, ending with negotiations with Viceroy Lord Irwin and the Second Round Table Conference.

Chronological History of Major Events of Ancient India

Date: (Era) - Event

1. 7000 BC - 2600 BC: (Mehrgarh Era) - Mehrgarh is located near the Bolan Pass in modern day Baluchistan and is one of the most important archeological sites of the Neolithic Era. It is the earliest site of farming and herding in South Asia. The earliest settled portion of Mehrgarh was a small farming and pastoralist village dated between 7000-5500 BC. Early Mehrgarh residents lived in mud brick houses, developed granaries and made copper tools, cultivated six-row barley, wheat, jujubes and dates, and herded sheep, goats and cattle. Residents of the later period (5500 BCE to 2600 BCE) put much effort into crafts, including flint knapping, tanning, bead production, and metal working. The site was occupied continuously until about 2600 BC, when it was abandoned. Mehrgarh is increasingly seen as a precursor to the Indus Valley Civilization.
2. 3500 BC - 1900 BC: (Indus Valley Civilization) - Indus Valley Civilization Rises and Declines: The Indus Valley was the home of one of the four ancient civilizations of the world, namely Egypt, Mesopotamia, S Asia and China. The civilization extended along the Indus river in parts of Pakistan and Punjab extending into the Ghaggar-Hakra River valley and the Ganges-Yamuna Doab. Covering an area of around 1.2 million sq. km it was the largest civilization of the ancient world.
3. 1500 BC - 700 BC: (Vedic Period) - The Veds are Written: The migration of the Aryans from the west deeper into the sub-continent triggered the Vedic Age. The period gets its name from the four Vedas that were written during this time - Rig Ved, Yajurved, Samved and Atharvaved. The period is broadly divided into the Early Vedic Period and the Late Vedic Period. In the early Vedic period various Aryan tribes migrated eastwards into the subcontinent. The people of the early Vedic age were semi-nomadic and had on large herds of domesticated cattle and farm animals. The tribes were divided into four varnas (castes) of Brahmins, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra. The transition from the early to later Vedic period was marked by the increase in agriculture as the dominant economic activity and decline of cattle hearding. This also led to the settling down of various Aryan tribes and emergence of various empires. The Vedic Period formed a platform for the rise of Hindu principles and indeed, the whole religion. It also contributed to Indian philosophy and literature.
4. 800 BC: (Late Vedic Period) - Budhayana writes Sulabh Sutra which contains the first statement of the Pythagoras Theorem. The Sulabh Sutra contains a list of Pythagorean triples discovered algebraically, a statement of the Pythagorean theorem, and a geometrical proof of the Pythagorean theorem for an isosceles right triangle.
5. 700 BC - 300 BC: (Period of the Mahajanapadas) - The Mahajanapadas are Formed: Large, fortified urban centers, known as the 16 Mahajanapadas ("great countries"), arise in Northern India. Vedic texts also talk about several 'Janas' or tribes of the Indo-Aryans living in a semi-nomadic tribal state and fighting among themselves and with other Non-Aryan tribes for cows, sheep and green pastures. These early Vedic Janas later coalesced into the Janapadas. Each of these Janapadas was named after the Kshatriya tribe (or the Kshatriya Jana) who had settled therein. The Buddhist and other texts only incidentally refer to sixteen great nations (Solasa Mahajanapadas) which were in existence before the time of Buddha.
6. 400 BC: (Period of the Mahajanapadas) - Panini composes Ashtadhyayi which gives formal production rules and definitions to describe Sanskrit grammar. It is the earliest known work on linguistics in human history. Panini's work observes and constructs language in a manner which has no parallel in Greek or Latin traditions. The rules that he defines in Ashtadhyayi are said to be compete and define the Sanskrit morphology fully, ie, without any redundancy.
7. 684 BC - 321 BC: (Period of the Mahajanapadas) - Rise and Fall of Magadh Empire: The Magadh empire formed one of the 16 Mahajanpadas. The core area of the kingdom was today's Bihar and parts of West Bengal. Over a period of 300 years it was ruled by Haryanka, Shishunaga and the Nanda dynastys. The Haryanka rulers Bimbisar (558 BC - 491 BC) and his son Ajatashatru (ruled 491 - 461 BC) expanded the boundries of the kingdom through marriage alliances and wars. In his war against Vaishali, Ajatshatru is said to have employed a kind of armored chariot (scythed chariot with swinging mace and blades on both the sides), which is said to be the first global precursor of modern day tanks.The great religions of Buddhism and Jainism were founded in the Magadh empire. Also the two of India's greatest empires, the Mauryan Empire and the Gupta Empire were founded out of Magadh. The last ruler of Shishunaga Dynasty, Kalasoka was assassinated by Mahapadma Nanda in 424 BC, the first of the so-called Nine Nandas (Mahapadma and his eight sons). The Nanda Dynasty ruled for about 100 years.The Magadha Empire was finally taken over by the Mauryas.
8. 599 BC - 527 BC: (Period of the Mahajanapadas) - Life and Times of Mahavir: Lord Mahavir was the 24th and the last Tirthankar of the Jain religion. He eas born in 599 BC as a prince in the kingdom of Vaishali, now part of Bihar. He renounced worldly pleasures and became a monk at the age of 30, left his family and royal household and gave up his worldly possessions, including clothing. He spent the next 12 years in meditation understanding the path to Moksha. At the end he realized perfect perception, knowledge, power, and bliss. This realization is known as keval-jnana. After this he spent the rest of his life travelling basre foor across India preaching to the people the truth he had realized. The ultimate objective of his teaching is how one can attain the total freedom from the cycle of birth, life, pain, misery, and death, and achieve the permanent blissful state of one's self. This is also known as liberation, nirvana, absolute freedom, or Moksha.After teaching his message and offering guidance to the public for thirty years, Lord Mahavira attained Nirvan in 527 BC, at the age of seventy-two. 
9. 563 BC - 483 BC: (Period of the Mahajanapadas) - Life and Times of Buddha: Lord Buddha was born Siddhartha Gautam as a prince of the Sakhya clan in Lumbini, Nepal. At the age of 29, after witnessing the suffering and plight of the human life around him, he left the princely conforts to search for truth and enlightenment. After much wandering, Gautam was famously seated under a pipal tree - now known as the Bodhi tree - in Bodh Gaya, India, when he vowed never to arise until he had found the truth. After a reputed 49 days of meditation, at the age of 35, he is said to have attained Enlightenment and was henceforth known as Buddha (the enlightened one). For the remaining next 45 years of his life, Buddha travelled across the Gangetic plains teaching his message to a wide set of people. Buddhism, based on his teachings, is today one of the largest religions of the world.
10. 500 BC: (Kingdom of Pratipalapura) - The Kingdom of Pratipalapura in Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh appears to be the earliest known kingdom in South India.
11. 327 BC: (Period of the Mahajanpadas) - Alexander Invades India: After his conquest of Persia Alexander made his way into India. King Ambhi, ruler of Taxila, surrendered the city to Alexander without any resistance. However, Alexander's army was given stiff resistance in the Battle of Hydaspes (Jhelum River) by the armies of king Porus of the Paurava kingdom. This was the first time that the Macedonians saw war elephants and suffered severe losses. After his victory over Porus, Alexander ventured further east conquering lands along the Indus river. However, his spies brought back news of the existance of the powerful Magdha Empire under the Nanda Dynasty eastwards in the Ganges planes. According to Plutarch, the Magdha army numbered 200,000 infantry, 80,000 cavalry, 8,000 chariots, and 6,000 war elephants, which was discouraging for Alexander's men and stayed their further progress into India."As for the Macedonians, however, their struggle with Porus blunted their courage and stayed their further advance into India. For having had all they could do to repulse an enemy who mustered only twenty thousand infantry and two thousand horse, they violently opposed Alexander when he insisted on crossing the river Ganges also, the width of which, as they learned, was thirty-two furlongs, its depth a hundred fathoms, while its banks on the further side were covered with multitudes of men-at‑arms and horsemen and elephants. For they were told that the kings of the Ganderites and Praesii were awaiting them with eighty thousand horsemen, two hundred thousand footmen, eight thousand chariots, and six thousand fighting elephants. And there was no boasting in these reports." - Plutarch, Parallel Lives, Life of Alexander. Facing mutiny Alexander turned back at the Beas river.
12. 321 BC - 185 BC: (Mauryan Empire) - Mauryan Empire is Established: The Mauryan empire was found by Chandragupta Maurya who overthrew the Nanda dynasty and, taking advantage of the disruptions of local powers in the wake of the withdrawal westward by Alexander's armies, rapidly expanded his kingdom westwards. By the end of 320 BC, Chandragupta Maurya fully conquered Northwestern India. At the peak of its powers, with an area of 5,000,000 sq km, the Mauryan empire was one of the world's largest empires in its time, and the largest ever in the Indian subcontinent. In the north it extended along the natural boundaries of the Himalayas and to Assam in the east. In the west it included Pakistan, Balochistan, south eastern parts of Iran and much of Afghanistan.The Empire was expanded into India's central and southern regions by the emperors Chandragupta and Bindusara, but it excluded a small portion of unexplored tribal and forested regions near Kalinga (modern Orissa), till it was conquered by Ashoka. Its decline began 60 years after Ashoka's rule ended, and it dissolved in 185 BC with the foundation of the Sunga Dynasty in Magadha. Under the Mauryans the Indian sub-continent saw a period of peace and prosperity never seen before and never seen after probably till the times of Akbar. The Mauryan India also saw a period of social and religious reforms and development in science and technology. Chandragupta Maurya's embrace of Jainism increased social and religious renewal and reform across his society, while Ashoka's embrace of Buddhism has been said to have been the foundation of the reign of social and political peace and non-violence across all of India.
13. 370 BC - 283 BC: (Mauryan Empire) - Chanakya writes Arthashastra the first known treatise on statecraft, economic policy and military strategy. Chanakya, the advisor of Chandragupta Maurya, is known as the father of modern day political science.
14. 300 BC - 300 AD: (The Sangam Period of South India) - Writing of the Sangam Litrature: The Sangam period extended from roughly 300 BC to 300 AD, when the earliest works of Tamil literature were composed (Sangam literature). The Tamil Sangams were assemblies of Tamil scholars and poets that, according to traditional accounts, occurred in the remote past. Overall three assemblies are described. The legend has it that the first two of which were held in cities since "taken by the sea", and the third of was held during the 5th century BC in the present-day city of Madurai.The works in Sangam literature deal with love, war, governance, trade and bereavement. This collection contains 2381 poems composed by 473 poets, some 102 of whom remain anonymous.
15. 300 BC - 1279 AD: (The Sangam Period of South India) - Establishment of the Chola Empire: The Chola dynasty was a Tamil dynasty which ruled over varying territory in Southern India upto the 13th century.The heartland of the Cholas was the fertile valley of the Kaveri River. The history of the Cholas falls into four periods: the early Cholas of the Sangam literature, the interregnum between the fall of the Sangam Cholas and the rise of the medieval Cholas under Vijayalaya (848 AD), the dynasty of Vijayalaya, and finally the Later Chola dynasty of Kulothunga Chola I from the third quarter of the 11th century AD.
16. 230 BC - 220 AD: (The Sangam Period of South India) - Establishment of the Satvahana Dynasty: Satvahanas, with holdings in parts of Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra, started out as feudatories to the Mauryan dynasty, but declared independence with its decline. A reference to the Sātavāhanas by the Greek traveler Megasthenes indicates that they possessed 100,000 infantry, 1,000 elephants, and had more than 30 well built fortified towns. The Satvahanas were patrons of Buddhism and are known to have developed the Buddhist stupas of  Sanchi and Amravati. The Satavahana empire colonized southeast Asia and spread Indian culture to those parts. Mahayana Buddhism, which may have originated in Andhra (northwestern India being the alternative candidate), was carried to many parts of Asia by the rich maritime culture of the Satvahanas.

1600s: Heera Raja and The Nagvanshis of Chotanagpur

Excerpts and Adaptations from the Book: The Nagvanshis of Chotanagpur, by Dr Sudha Sinha (Reader, Ranchi College, Ranchi University).

The Nagvanshis were the rulers of Chotanagpur since the beginning of the Christian era. The first Nagvanshi ruler was Phani Mukut Rai born in 64 AD. He was the adopted son of Madra Munda, the Partha Raja of Sutiambe. It is said that when Phani Mukut Rai was found near a tank as a newborn, a hooded kobra (Nag) was protecting him. Perhaps this was the reason why he and his successors were called the Nagvanshis. Phani Mukut Rai ruled from 83AD to 162 AD. Till date, four Nagvanshavalis are available that prove that the Nagvanshis ruled over Chotanagpur plateau in India for close to two thousand years, from the 1st century to 1951 when the Zamindari was abolished. (This would put the Nagvanshis among the top dynasties that ruled the longest in the world, which include the Dulo clan in Bulgaria, The Imperial House of Japan and Hong Bang dynasty of Korea).

Till the reign of Akbar, Chotanagpur had not come under the suzerainty of the Mughals and the Nagvanshi rulers had been ruling over this region as independent rulers. Akabar was informed of a rebel Afghan sardar, Junaid Kararani, was taking shelter in Chotanagpur. Besides, the emperor also got information of diamonds being found in this area. Consequently, Akbar ordered Shahbaz Khan Turbani to attack Kokhra (the then seat of Nagvanshi kings and capital of Chotanagpur). At that time Raja Madhu Singh, the 42nd Nagvanshi king was ruling at Kokhra. Consequently Kokhra was subdued by the armies of Akbar and a sum of rupees six thousand was fixed as its annual revenues payable to the Mughals.

By the advent of the reign of Jahangir, Nagvanshi Raja Durjan Sal had come to power in Chotanagpur. He refused to pay the rent fixed by the Emperor Akbar. Jahangir ordered Ibrahim Khan (governor of Bihar) to attack Kokhra. The details of this invasion are mentioned in Jahangir’s memoirs, Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri. There was also another reason behind the invasion. This was the acquisition of the diamonds found in the bed of the river Sankh in the region. Due to its diamonds Chotanagpur was also known as Heera Nagpur and its Raja Durjan Sal, being an expert of diamonds, was known as Heera Raja among the people. Thus to subdue the Raja of Chotanagpur and to acquire valuable diamonds, Jahangir decided to invade Chotanagpur.

On getting orders from the emperor, Ibrahim Khan marched against Kokhra in 1615 AD. He entered the Nagvanshi territories easily with the help of his guides. The Nagvanshi Raja Durjan Sal found himself beleaguered himself within the hills and vales. He fled and was at last found in a cave with some of his family members. He was arrested and all diamonds which were in the possession of Durjan Sal and his family were captured by Ibrahim Khan. Twenty four elephants also fell into the hands of Ibrahim Khan. After this, Kokhara was subdued and the diamonds found there were sent to the Imperial court. After his defeat and arrest, Durjan Sal offered as ransom jewels, gold and silver to the value of crores of rupees, but Ibrahim Khan did not release him and took him as a captive to Patna. From there he was sent to the Imperial court and subsequently imprisoned in the fort of Gwalior.

According to Nagvanshi traditions and Col. Dalton, Raja Durjan Sal’s confinement lasted twelve years. Ultimately, the very diamonds which had caused the misfortune of Durjan Sal secured him his release and former prosperity. It so happened that from some place, two very large diamonds were brought to Emperor Jahangir’s court. A doubt arose in the mind of the Emperor over the genuineness of one of them. As no one in his court was able to confirm or relieve his suspicion, the Heera Raja was brought to the Imperial court from his incarceration. When the two diamonds were brought before him, he without any hesitation pointed out the fake one. To prove it to the court and the Emperor, he requested two rams to be brought to the court. He then tied the two diamonds on the horns of the two rams and made them fight each other. As a result of the fight, the fake diamond shattered but there was no scratch on the pure one. The Emperor was so impressed and pleased with Durjan Sal that he not only released him but also restored the prosperity taken from him in addition to his kingdom.

The generous Durjan Sal further begged the Emperor to release the other Rajas who had been his companions in prison and his prayer was granted. Being pleased with Durjan Sal, Jahangir conferred the title of ‘Shah’ on the Kokhra ruler. On his return to Chotanagpur, Durjan Sal assumed the title of Maharaja and changed his surname. Most probably from that time ‘Shah’ was added with the names of the Nagvanshi kings. The reign of Durjan Sal lasted for about thirteen years. He died in 1639 or 1640 AD.

The Sacrifice of Rani Padmavati

The story of Rani Padmini / Padmavati of Chittor is a blend of historic facts and folklore. It is the story of the courage, medieval chivalry and sacrifice exhibited by the Rajput warriors, both men and women.

Though the historic facts behind the story can only be clearly ascertained of Ala-ud-Din’s conquest of Chittor in 1303 with the defeat of the king Ratan Singh (as told in Khaza’inul Futuh (English title: A Treasury of Victory: The Campaigns of Ala-ud-din Khilji) by Amir Khusrau), I will tell the story as narrated in Khuman Raysa, the great chronicle of the Guhilot and Sisodia Rajputs (recompiled during 1572-1597 during the reign of Maharana Pratap Singh) and as it exists in today’s folklore.

Ala-ud-din-Khilji

In 1296, Ala-ud-Din Khilji the nephew as well as son-in-law of Jalal-ud-Din Khilji (Sultan of Delhi and the first emperor of the Khilji dynasty), killed his uncle and marched on to Delhi with his head on a pike and proclaimed himself king. Then he started the process of consolidation of the Delhi Sultanate which over time would make him the most powerful ruler in the history of the sub-continent and the second unifier of the Indian subcontinent after the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka. At the peak of his rule, he dreamt of becoming a world conqueror and prefixed the title of Sikandar Sani which means the Second Alexander. He is also known as one of the very few emperors in history who repeatedly defeated the plundering and warring Mongol armies.

Fort of Chittor

During that time, Mewar was the strongest Rajput kingdom and a bitter opponent of the Delhi Sultanate. The seat of Mewar was the formidable fort of Chittor, the largest fort in the sub continent. The fort had been constructed in the 7th century AD by the Mauryans and had never been sacked in its history. Spread across 700 acres the fort was situated on a hill top and was extremely well fortified.

During Ala-ud-Din’s reign the king of Mewar was Rana Ratan Singh. He married Rani Padmini whose beauty and wit was famous across the Rajputana. In his marriage, Ratan Singh also received a large dowry as a gift from his father in law. Two of Ratan Singh’s brothers, Raghav and Chetan, who were also his courtiers, demanded a part of the dowry from the king. Angered by their demands Ratan Singh expelled them from his court and banished them from Mewar. Sulking after this humiliation, Raghav and Chetan made their way towards Delhi with the aim of trying to incite Ala-ud-din Khilji to attack Chittor. There in the Sultan’s court, Raghav and Chetan praised the beauty of Padmavati to the extent that Ala-ud-Din’s lust was aroused. He had been planning to conquer Mewar for a long time but his desire to take Padmavati as his mistress proved to be the deciding factor that shifted his immediate focus towards Mewar and the fort of Chittor.

It was January 1303 when Ala-ud-Din marshaled his army, marched south, and laid siege to Chittor. But seeing the fort and realizing that the breaching its defenses would be a near impossible task Ala-ud-Din came up with a devious plan. He sent an emissary to Ratan Singh that he would return to Delhi with his army if allowed a glimpse of the famous beauty of Rani Padmavati. Trying to avoid a war, Ratan Singh agreed, however consented only to allow Ala-ud-Din to look at Padmavati’s reflection in a mirror.

The sultan came with his most trusted and experienced generals who, while they waited keenly examined the fort’s defenses in order to prepare for their attack on Chittor. Meanwhile on seeing Rani Padmavati’s reflection Ala-ud-Din was awed by her beauty and his desire for her increased. On the way back to his camp, he was escorted by Ratan Singh to the gate of the fort. There, Ala-ud-Din’s soldiers ambushed and captured the king. He was taken as a prisoner to the sultan’s camp. The sultan then sent message to Rani Padmavati and the nobles of Mewar demanding Padmavati in exchange of Ratan Singh.

Rani Padmavati discussed the proposal with her uncle and his son, Gora and Badal, who were also the leading generals in Ratan Singh’s army. Together they came up with an ingenious plan. A message was sent to Ala-ud-Din that Padmavati, along with her serving maids and her retinue would come to his camp in the morning. When dawn arrived, 200 palanquins left the gates of Chittor. Each palanquin was carried by four men from the Rajput army disguised as palanquin bearers. Inside each palanquin sat four more men carrying swords and other weapons for themselves and their disguised friends. Gora and Badal had handpicked the fiercest warriors and were leading the assault themselves. When the procession reached Ala-ud-Din’s camp the Rajputs jumped out from the palanquins and attacked the sultan’s unsuspecting soldiers. Though the Rajputs suffered heavy losses and both Gora and Badal perished, Rana Ratan Singh was rescued and

returned safely to the fort. Ala-ud-Din then lay seize to the fort.

By August, after a long drawn seize, the resources within the fort decreased and Ratan Singh planned an all out suicide attack on the would-be invaders as they could hold out no longer. The womenfolk then resident within that fort decided to collectively committed suicide rather than risk personal dishonor at the hands of the victorious invading army. On 26th August, 1303, a huge pier was lit within the fort and Rani Padmavati, along with other noblewomen belonging to the court committed Jauhar. The Rajput men then wore saffron turbans as a mark of performing saka, rode out to meet Ala-ud-Din’s army in battle and perished to the last man.

The first written version of the legend appeared nearly 250 years after the event in a long narrative poem written by Malik Muhammad Jayasi. The epic poem was written in Awadhi around 1540 AD during the rule of Sher Shah Suri.